

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Bilingualism and diglossia
المؤلف:
David Hornsby
المصدر:
Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة:
246-12
2024-01-02
1471
Bilingualism and diglossia
Viewed from the prism of the Anglo-Saxon world, monolingualism for many seems to be the normal state of affairs: we work, play, love, raise families, watch television, read introductory linguistics textbooks and do all the other things that human beings need or want to do through the medium of English, generally without giving a second thought to the language we use. The ‘languages’ menus on English language DVDs not infrequently offer only ‘English’, or ‘English for the deaf or hard of hearing’, as if no other languages were worth bothering about. This state of affairs is not, however, typical of all or even most societies across the globe: probably a majority of the world’s population needs to use more than one language on a regular basis.
An individual’s proficiency in two languages is known as bilingualism (likewise the terms trilingualism or multilingualism are used to denote a speaker’s competence in more than two languages). At the level of the nation state, again multilingualism rather than monolingualism is the norm, though the extent to which individuals within them control more than one language varies considerably. Within Europe, only Portugal and Iceland are generally reckoned to have no significant indigenous linguistic minorities (though, it all depends how one draws the distinction between ‘language’ and ‘dialect’). Switzerland has four official languages (French, Italian, German and Romansch); Belgium has three (Dutch, German and French), as does Finland, where Finnish, Swedish and Sami enjoy official status.
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