(Table 1) Cellulitis is an acute inflammatory condition of the skin that is characterized by localized pain, erythema, swelling, and heat. It may be caused by indigenous flora colonizing the skin and append ages (e.g., S. aureus and S. pyogenes) or by a wide variety of exogenous bacteria. Because the exogenous bacteria involved in cellulitis occupy unique niches in nature, a thorough history (including epidemiologic data) offers important clues to etiology. When there is drainage, an open wound, or an obvious portal of entry, Gram stain and culture provide a definitive diagnosis. In the absence of these findings, the bacterial etiology of cellulitis is difficult to establish, and in some cases, staphylococcal and streptococcal cellulitis may have similar features. Even with needle aspiration of the leading edge or a punch biopsy of the cellulitis tissue itself, cultures are positive in only 20% of cases. This observation suggests that relatively low numbers of bacteria may cause cellulitis and that the expanding area of erythema within the skin may be a direct effect of extracellular toxins or of the soluble mediators of inflammation elicited by the host.

Table1. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

Bacteria may gain access to the epidermis through cracks in the skin, abrasions, cuts, burns, insect bites, surgical incisions, and IV catheters. Cellulitis caused by S. aureus spreads from a central localized infection, such as an abscess, folliculitis, or an infected foreign body (e.g., a splinter, a prosthetic device, an IV catheter). MRSA is rapidly replacing methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) as a cause of cellulitis in both inpatient and outpatient settings. Cellulitis caused by MSSA or MRSA is usually associated with a focal infection, such as a furuncle, a carbuncle, a surgical wound, or an abscess; the U.S. Food and Drug Administration preferentially refers to these types of infection as purulent cellulitis. In contrast, cellulitis due to S. pyogenes is a more rapidly spreading, diffuse process that is frequently associated with lymphangitis and fever and should be referred to as nonpurulent cellulitis. Recurrent streptococcal cellulitis of the lower extremities may be caused by organisms of group A, C, or G in association with chronic venous stasis or with saphenous venectomy for coronary artery bypass surgery. Streptococci also cause recurrent cellulitis among patients with chronic lymphedema resulting from elephantiasis, lymph node dissection, or congenital disorders. Recurrent staphylococcal cutaneous infections are more common among individuals who have Job syndrome, the autosomal dominant hyper-IgE recurrent infection syndrome, and among nasal carriers of staphylococci. Cellulitis caused by Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus) occurs primarily in elderly patients and those with diabetes mellitus or peripheral vascular disease. Haemophilus influenzae typically causes periorbital cellulitis in children in association with sinusitis, otitis media, or epiglottitis. It is unclear whether this form of cellulitis will (like meningitis) become less common as a result of the impressive efficacy of the H. influenzae type b vaccine.

Many other bacteria also cause cellulitis. It is fortunate that these organisms occur in such characteristic settings that a good history pro vides useful clues to the diagnosis. Cellulitis associated with cat bites and, to a lesser degree, with dog bites is commonly caused by Pasteurella multocida, although in the latter case Staphylococcus intermedius and Capnocytophaga canimorsus also must be considered. Sites of cellulitis and abscesses associated with dog bites and human bites also contain a variety of anaerobic organisms, including Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, aerobic and anaerobic streptococci, and Eikenella corrodens. Pasteurella is notoriously resistant to dicloxacillin and nafcillin but is sensitive to other β-lactam antimicrobial agents as well as to quinolones, tetracycline, and erythromycin. Amoxicillin-clavulanate, ampicillin-sulbactam, and cefoxitin are good choices for the treatment of animal or human bite infections. Aeromonas hydrophila causes aggressive cellulitis and occasionally necrotizing fasciitis in tissues surrounding lacerations sustained in freshwater (lakes, rivers, and streams). This organism remains sensitive to aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and third-generation cephalosporins; it is resistant to ampicillin, however. P. aeruginosa causes three types of soft tissue infection: ecthyma gangrenosum in neutropenic patients, hot-tub folliculitis, and cellulitis following penetrating injury. Most commonly, P. aeruginosa is introduced into the deep tissues following a significant penetrating injury, such as occurs when a person steps on a nail. Treatment includes surgical inspection and drainage, particularly if the injury also involves bone or joint capsule. Choices for empirical treatment (while antimicrobial susceptibility data are awaited) include an aminoglycoside, a third generation cephalosporin (ceftazidime, cefoperazone), a semisynthetic penicillin (ticarcillin or piperacillin), or a fluoroquinolone.

Gram-negative bacillary cellulitis, including that due to P. aeruginosa, is most common among hospitalized, immunocompromised hosts. Cultures and sensitivity tests are critically important in this set ting because of multidrug resistance.

The gram-positive aerobic rod Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is most often associated with fish and domestic swine and causes cellulitis primarily in bone renderers and fishmongers. E. rhusiopathiae remains susceptible to most β-lactam antibiotics (including penicillin), erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracycline, and cephalosporins but is resistant to sulfonamides, chloramphenicol, and vancomycin. Its resistance to vancomycin, which is unusual among gram-positive bacteria, is of potential clinical significance since this agent is sometimes used in empirical therapy for skin infection. Fish food containing the water flea Daphnia is sometimes contaminated with M. marinum, which can cause cellulitis or granulomas on skin surfaces exposed to the water in aquariums or injured in swimming pools. Ethambutol and either clarithromycin or azithromycin are the best therapies.

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Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome

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