Image schema transformations
As we have seen, some of the distinct senses posited by Lakoff are reflections of individual schemas, which are stored image-schematic representations that specify the central schema in more detail. However, Lakoff argues that distinct senses can also be derived by virtue of image schema transformations. In Chapter 6, we saw that image schemas are dynamic representations that emerge from embodied experience, and that one image schema can be transformed into another (for example, when we understand the relationship between a SOURCE and a GOAL in terms of a PATH, and vice versa). One consequence of a shift in focus from PATH to GOAL is that we achieve endpoint focus: the end of a path takes on particular prominence. In other words, image schema transformations relate to the construal of a scene according to a particular perspective.
Lakoff has argued that the transformation from a SOURCE schema to an end point focus or GOAL schema gives rise to two distinct senses associated with the ABOVE-ACROSS schema (schema 1) that we discussed above. Consider once more the senses depicted in Figures 10.6 and 10.7, illustrated by examples (7) and (8).
As a result of image schema transformation, an endpoint focus can be added to these senses. This is illustrated by examples (9) and (10):
By following a mental path, a process that Langacker (1987) refers to as subjective motion, attention is focused on the location of St Paul’s in example (9) and on where John lives in example (10). In other words, the meaning of over in these examples is focused not on the path itself, but on the endpoint of the path. Lakoff argues that sentences like these relate to the image schemas shown in Figures 10.10 and 10.11. Observe that the TR is located at the endpoint of the path.
Lakoff argues that endpoint focus is not supplied by the subject John, nor by the verb, nor by the landmark; it follows that this ‘additional’ meaning is supplied by over. Lakoff annotates this aspect of meaning by adding E (end point focus) to the representations in (9) and (10), resulting in 1.X.C.E and 1.VX.C.E respectively. As these annotations indicate, Lakoff argues that over has two distinct endpoint focus senses, one relating to horizontally extended landmarks, illustrated by sentence (9), and the other relating to vertically extended landmarks, illustrated by sentence (10). In sum, these endpoint focus senses are the result of image schema transformation. Moreover, Lakoff claims that image schema transformations like these result in addition of ‘end point focus’ senses to the semantic network for over. In other words, they rep resent distinct lexical concepts or senses instantiated in semantic memory. According to Lakoff, the fact that senses of this kind exist provides further evidence for the cognitive reality of image schemas and illustrates their important role in meaning extension.
