Taxonomy

As we saw in the last section, one of the problems in making the notion of hyponymy explicit derives from the equivocal nature of the predicate kind of. This seems to denote both the ‘strict’ hierarchy-defining, class inclusion relation of the kind sports car–car–vehicle, and the ‘looser’ com parison relation of the sort exemplified in (13). The ‘strict’ reading of kind of is best demonstrated by taxonomies, hyponymic hierarchies of names for plants and animals. An English example of a taxonomy, accompanied by various labels discussed below, appears as Figure 5.1.

This taxonomy shows five ranks, each of which includes all those below it: all swamp white oaks are white oaks, all white oaks are oaks, all oaks are trees, and all trees are plants. Each rank in the hierarchy is thus one particular kind of the rank above it. A comparison with the examples in (13) will immediately reveal that the notion of kind of found here is clearly different from the one involved in phrases like a koala is a kind of bear. Even though we might utter sentences like these for comparative or explanatory purposes, to modern Westerners familiar with scientific classification there is an obvious sense in which a koala is not a kind of bear: a koala is a kind of marsupial. The strict notion of kind of operative in taxonomies and the class-inclusion categories it defines seem particularly stable: it is in general hard for us to revise the taxonomies of natural kinds which we have learnt as part of the process of acquiring our native language. We will not, in general, be able to reclassify an oak as a pine, or a lizard as a mammal: the categories in our natural-kind taxonomies are quite rigid and distinct. The arrangement of a language’s natural kind terms into taxonomies like this allows speakers to draw important inferences about the distribution of the properties which characterize different features of the natural world. Consider for example the partial taxonomy animal – mammal – cow. ‘Learning that one cow is susceptible to mad cow disease, one might reasonably infer that all cows may be susceptible to the disease but not that all mammals or animals are’ (Atran 1999: 121).

 How are taxonomies distinguished from non-taxonomic hyponymies? In non-taxonomic hyponymies, a hyponym (e.g. mare) can be replaced by a complex label consisting of a superordinate term and a modifier (e.g. female horse; see Cruse 1986: 137–145). Similarly, gelding, another non taxonomic hyponym of horse, can be replaced, without any loss of meaning, by neutered horse. This possibility does not exist throughout a taxonomy. There are no modifiers that can be added to the superordinate bird in order to distinguish the subordinates robin, eagle or hawk. Similarly, the non-taxonomic nature of the category weed is revealed by its paraphrase as unwanted plant, and that of vegetable by edible plant.

QUESTION Can you think of any exceptions to this generalization? When you have thought about this, go on to read about the distinction between primary and secondary lexemes a few paragraphs below (after example (19)).

The cross-linguistic construction of taxonomies has been extensively investigated, especially by anthropologists working in the tradition of Berlin (Berlin 1972, 1992; Berlin, Breedlove and Raven 1973). Berlin proposed, mainly on the basis of name-elicitation interviews and grouping tasks with native-speaker informants, that there is a universal taxonomic structure of a maximum of five basic ranks, as shown, arranged into levels, in Figure 5.1. This structure is common to all ethnobiological classifications, and is assumed to reflect universal cognitive patterns. For any given plant or animal in a language, the ranks of the taxonomy to which it belongs need not all necessarily have distinct names; the structure shown in Figure 5.1 illustrates the basic template on which plant and animal taxonomies seem to be patterned cross-linguistically. The most inclusive level of the taxonomy is the unique beginner or kingdom rank, of which the English categories plant and animal are examples. This rank is numbered as level 0 in Berlin’s system since it is commonly not lexicalized in taxonomies: many languages do not have general words corresponding to English animal and plant. In Itza (Mayan, Northern Guatemala), for example, there is no single word for plant: however, the cognitive reality of this level is suggested by the fact that the numeral classifier -teek is used with all and only plants (Atran 1999).

The next level, level 1, is the level of life-forms, e.g. categories like tree, grass, vine or bird, fish, snake in English. The number of different categories recognized at this level tends to be fairly small. In Hanunóo (Austronesian; Philippines), for example, plants are categorized as kayu ‘wood’, ?ilamnun ‘herb’ or wakat ‘vine’. The first category includes all plants with typically woody stems, the second all non-woody or very small plants, the third all plants with twining, vinelike stems (Conklin 1954: 92–93, quoted in Berlin 1992: 164). Tobelo people (West Papuan, Indonesia) recognize five animal life-forms: o totaleo ‘bird’, o dodihna ‘snake’, o nawoko ‘fish’, o bianga ‘mollusc’ and a fifth unnamed category including all other animals (Berlin 1992: 165). In Itzaj (Mayan, Guatemala; Atran 1999: 123), plants generally fall under one of four mutually exclusive life forms: che’ (trees), pok~che’ (herbs, shrubs, undergrowth), ak’ (vines), and su’uk (grasses). The animal life-forms of Rofaifo (Papua New Guinea) number five; their membership may be surprising to someone used to standard Western classifications:

Below the life-form level is the generic level (Level 2): as well as oak, English has elm, gum, maple, poplar, and many others. Generics may or may not have further levels below them: for some taxonomies this is the last level. The unique beginner, life form and generic level lexemes are usually labelled by what Brown (2002: 474) calls primary lexemes, i.e. ‘simple unitary words such as plant, tree, oak, bird and robin’. On lower levels of the taxonomy, one typically finds secondary lexemes, which consist of the term for the immediately superordinate class, accompanied by a modifier (e.g. white oak, a kind of oak (Level 3) and swamp white oak (Level 4)). Secondary lexemes are also known as binomial labels. Level 4, varietal classes, are rare cross-linguistically, most taxonomies only extending to the third level. Intensively studied systems of ethnobiological classification usually also reveal an intermediate rank, located between the life-forms of Level 1 and the generics of Level 2. An English intermediate rank would be evergreen (tree), which includes generic classes like pine, fi r and cedar, and is included in the life-form category tree. Intermediate ranks distinguishing different categories of the life-form bird have been noted in Kalam (Trans-New Guinea, Papua New Guinea), Wayampi (Tupi, Brazil) and Huambisa (Jivaroan, Peru). Thus, the Kalam life-form category yakt ‘birds and flying things’ is super ordinate to an intermediate category pow, grouping together two types of nightjar (Berlin 1992: 139–140).

 It would appear that taxonomy-like structures exist in all of the world’s languages. Like Berlin, Atran (1990) argues that multi-level taxonomic structuring like that shown in Figure 5.1 is universal, and he grounds this claim in certain alleged features of human cognition. Human beings, he claims, are cognitively predisposed to believe that each type of living thing has a particular inner nature or essence. For people raised in English-speaking cultures, for example, the oak is inherently seen as having an essence or nature which places it in the class of trees and distinguishes it from the pine; this belief in the inherent essences of living things allows their insertion into taxonomic hierarchies on the basis of their inherent properties. Taxonomic organization like that exemplified in Figure 5.1 is thus an innate mental pattern shared by all human beings:

Meaning for living-kind terms can thus be analyzed in a fundamentally distinct way from the semantics of other object domains, such as the domain of artifacts and perhaps that of chemical and physical sub stances as well. All and only living kinds are conceived as physical sorts whose intrinsic ‘natures’ are presumed, even if unknown. (Atran 1990: 6)

Speculations like those of Berlin and Atran on the universal principles of taxonomic structure, however, have been extensively criticized by those who see the naming practices of different languages as arising out of practical, culture-specific forces, rather than putatively universal structuring principles of human cognition (Hunn 1982, Ellen 1993). Researchers working in the tradition of Berlin have been accused of ‘attempting to impose a form of taxonomic rigidity on a cultural apparatus the general characteristics of which are quite antithetical: namely fluidity, flexibility and elasticity’ (Ellen 1993: 220). The universality – and hence the cognitive basis – of the taxonomic structure shown in Figure 5.1 has frequently been called into question: Malapandaram classifications, for example (Dravidian, India; Ellen 1979: 19), appear highly individualistic, limited in scope, and relatively unconcerned with systematization, and the Malapandaram seem to lack any ‘systematic knowledge of their natural environment clearly expressed in formal taxonomies’ (Ellen 1979: 19). Discussing Bunaq (Trans-New Guinea, East Timor) classification, Friedberg (1979: 85) states that ‘plants appear to be organized more according to a complex web of resemblances and affinities in which individual plants can belong to several categories, rather than according to a tree-like system of hierarchical categories’ like the one assumed in Berlin’s model.

This controversy over the universality of taxonomic principles is exemplary of the issues and questions raised by any exploration of cross-linguistic semantic universals (see Chapter 11). The fact that, like ‘part of’, the basic hyponymic/taxonomic notion ‘kind of’ does not seem to have reliable equivalents in all languages may be a problem for proponents of the universal structure of taxonomies. Ellen (1993: 61), for example, notes that there is no exact term in Nuaulu (Austronesian; Indonesia) for ‘kind of’. Furthermore, many of the facts about Nuaulu ethno-classification suggest that neat taxonomies of the sort illustrated in Figure 5.1 are simply irrelevant to the way Nuaulu people actually think and talk about the biological world.

For example, . . . the question ‘what is asu (dog, Canis familiaris) a kind of?’ is culturally inappropriate because it is never, ordinarily, thought of as a ‘kind of’ anything, except perhaps ‘animal’. Yet again, the question ‘what is asuwan (cassowary, Casuarius casuarius) a kind of?’ can generate a whole range of possible answers, no one of which is more ‘correct’ than any other . . . Similarly, to ask an informant how many types of an ani mal there are is likely to invite an answer where (in a strict taxonomic sense) none is possible. An informant, out of simple courtesy, because the situation demands it and through the creative use of dualism as a linguistic feature, may provide the name of the most closely related animals he or she can think of, and in this circumstance relationship can be described in morphological or ecological terms. In one elicitory context a monitor lizard might appear as ‘a type of crocodile’, and an earth worm ‘a type of snake’. Ellen (1993: 25–26)

Where class-inclusion arrangements can be discerned, these not infrequently violate taxonomic principles. On Berlin’s original approach, for instance, categories of the same taxonomic rank must be mutually exclusive and contrasting: a given tree, for example, must either be an oak, elm, ash, pine, gum, etc., but may not be more than one of these; without this constraint, the very notion of a taxonomy breaks down (Berlin 1992: 15). Ellen (1993: 86) found, however, that category boundaries in Nuaulu are not discrete in this way. Thus, the same animal might be classed as either an imanoma (‘rat’) or as a mnaha (‘mouse’) depending on the context, even though these two are recognized as separate categories. According to Ellen (1993: 123), this is because Nuaulu actually has no permanent classificatory principles: animals are simply classified ‘according to criteria that seem relevant at the time’. Similarly, ethnobiological terminology often seems to straddle hierarchical levels in a way which runs counter to the presuppositions of Berlin’s model. In Yurok (Algic, USA; Bright and Bright 1965, discussed in Berlin 1992: 39–40), for example, the one term tepo: means both ‘fi r tree’ (generic level), and ‘tree’ (life-form level), a circumstance which would seem to provide evidence against Berlin’s observation (1992: 31) that the ranks are ‘mutually exclusive’.

 It would not be appropriate here to talk of either the Ellen or the Berlin approach being proven or disproven by this sort of evidence. Berlin can always make specific adjustments to his model to incorporate phenomena which seem to run against it. It is rather a question of which model seems to square more with the facts, and the answer to this will vary from one researcher to another. For many linguists and anthropologists, however, the concentration on putative cognitive universals of taxonomic structure is a distraction from the real business of cross-linguistic research, which should concentrate on the details of how animal and plant terms are actually used, rather than construct abstract taxonomies using formal methods designed to contribute to ‘comparative and evolutionary speculation about general mental principles of classification or cognition’ (Ellen 1993: 3). We take up the question of cross-linguistic semantic typology again in 11.4.

 QUESTION Could artificial objects like clarinet, beanbag or wheelchair be considered to belong to taxonomies like those of natural kinds? Read Atran (1990: 475–476) when you have thought about the answer.

اخر الاخبار

اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة

مجموعة العميد التربوية تعقد اجتماعًا لمناقشة الاستعدادات الخاصة بالموسم التدريبي الصيفي

قسم الإعلام ينظم ورشة تدريبية حول تطبيق (إعلامي) لعدد من منتسبي قسم حفظ النظام

قسم الشؤون الخدمية ينفذ حملة لتنظيف الشوارع المحيطة بصحن مرقد أبي الفضل العباس (عليه السلام)

وفد العتبة العباسية المقدسة يزور شعبة الإعداد البدني للاطّلاع على برنامج تأهيل المنتسبين الجدد

المزيد

الآخبار الصحية

ماذا يحدث إذا تناولنا الطعام مرة واحدة فقط في اليوم

اكتشاف عوامل خطر غير متوقعة لمرض الكبد الدهني

فيروس هانتا والسفينة الموبوءة.. تحديث من الصحة العالمية

طبيب يحسم الجدل السجائر الإلكترونية وعلاقتها بالسرطان

المزيد

الآخبار التكنلوجية

لأول مرة في الولايات المتحدة.. تشغيل مفاعل مصغر نووي يغذي الذكاء الاصطناعي بالطاقة

الكشف عن تفاصيل أول عملية ناجحة لاستعادة انتاج الحيوانات المنوية

أطلس يكشف خفايا الجسم البشري بدقة أرفع بـ50 مرة من شعر الإنسان

المتحف المصري الكبير يتحول إلى "أيقونة خضراء" بدعم ياباني

المزيد

مواضيع ذات صلة

Synonymy

Hyponymy

Meronymy

Antonymy

Lexical relations

Semantics and pragmatics

Relevance theory

Are the maxims universal?

Questions about implicatures

Infringing the maxims

Gricean maxims and the Cooperative Principle

Conventional and conversational implicature