APPLIED LINGUISTICS for BA Students in English
VISUAL, AUDIO, AUDIO-VISUAL AND DIGITAL AIDS
Audio resources and ways of audio-production
The natural human demonstration is the prime source for acquiring and developing listening skills. Even the word mother tongue indicated that parents and the closest community, i.e. the family plays an important role in providing language patterns that are initially acquired through hearing and listening.
Hearing is a perception that one receives in the passive way, i.e. one is the receptor of sequences of sounds. Listening and listening comprehension though is of active nature. It is a series of activities hat is targeted at gaining information depending on identified needs and interest (Byrne, 1976; Poór, 2001; Underwood, 1989).
It is taken for granted that one comprehends most information transmitted in their first language (mother tongue) with ease. The message being communicated through can be understood due to the fact that the input is made comprehensible by the situation and context (Krashen, 1987). Strategies of listening comprehension are built on the notion of comprehensible input. When listening, one follows either the so-called bottom-up approach or the top-down one (White 1998). One refers to bottom-up approach when one builds up his or her listening strategy on understanding the primary constructing elements of language – individual sounds, syllabi and words – first and then gradually arrives at comprehending all message as a whole. The top-down approach would indicate the opposite of the previously mentioned strategy. It means that one approaches the understanding of the message from a holistic point of view that is very much supported by the awareness of the theme of discourse and the context in which the message is communicated through.
When learning and teaching foreign languages, the role of life human presentation by teachers, peers (i.e. fellow-learners) and visitors who speak the target language as a native one has always been extremely important. Their contribution to language education can be complemented by supportive audio technologies.
Radio, record-players, reel-to-reel tape- and cassette-recorders have been used as authentic resources for language learning since the development of Direct Method and Audio-Lingual Method. Their importance has not changed though they are being replaced by Internet- or web-radio and various kinds of digital recordings (e.g. CDs and MP3s).
Audio resources can be distinguished depending on the target audience. One can use materials recorded or broadcast for language learning purposes and authentic media that have been targeted at native speakers or people living in the target language country.
The so-called published materials broadcast structured and graded language bearing students of various levels of linguistic competence in mind. Even the content can be selected and graded regarding the objectives. They often convey target-language-culture-related information. Scriptwriters of published materials have all the language educational objectives and principles in their mind. Materials of this kind are often recorded in studios equipped with technologies of high standards so that disturbing noises would be avoided. Published audios are often accompanied by activity books.
The language of authentic recordings or radio broadcasts is not structured or graded. These media are scripted and edited based on the principles of journalism, drama, commercials, etc. rather than on that of the didactics. Majority of these resources can be fully comprehended mainly by people sharing the understanding of the contemporary reality of the target language culture.
There are further three categories to be mentioned that range between these two extreme ones.
Some publishers produce teaching materials that are developed from authentic (mainly) radio broadcasts accompanied by teachers’ books and workbooks to help teachers and learners downgrade the message conveyed by unstructured language. The supplementary (mainly) print materials open up the cultural perspectives of the authentic resources, too. These can be labelled as authentic audios republished for language teaching and learning purposes.
When visiting target language countries and / or meeting people represented the target language cultures, one can record interviews or other genres of audio-production to use with learners. When making resources of this kind one has particular classroom needs and students in mind. If one has not found any published or authentic material to cover the topic one needs to present, producing a recording on one’s own is the way out. Worksheets and any supplementary material can be produced on the teacher’s own initiative, too. People whose voice is recorded do not necessary structure and grade their language. They talk the way they normally do. These audios can be specified as authentic resources recorded for language teaching purposes.
National radios and publishers of educational materials often produce recordings for schools in their own countries. Audio-recordings to contribute to teaching any subject area in schools in the target language country are scripted and recorded bearing the subject-specific didactic principles in mind, but they do not pay much attention to structuring and grading the language. Materials of this kind can be used in language classes, too. Though, one has to adjust the accompanying worksheets to the standards and needs of students. These educational authentic resources can promote cross-curricular language education with much success.
Whatever type of audio-recording one uses, there is a great number of techniques to apply in order to make an active use of them.
The process of applying audio-materials for receptive purposes
A. Pre-medium stage: Exercises before listening to the audio- source
➣ Guessing the topic of the audio-source based on
o some key words or expressions
o some text related to the topic
o some noises or music
➣ Prediction of the rest of the audio-source based on
o some key words or expressions
o some text related to the audio-source
o some noises or music
➣ Collecting words and expressions related to the topic the audio- source covers
B. Active stage: Exercises to be used while listening
➣ Collecting words and expressions related to the audio-source
➣ Elaborating on the (new) vocabulary with the help of a mono- and/or bilingual dictionary
➣ Paraphrasing (new) words and expressions in individual student work and/or in pair-work
with peer(s)
➣ Collecting pieces of information related to particular criteria
➣ Matching
o pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording with words
o pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording with data and/or names of
people / places / events
o pictures illustrating the topic of he audio-recording with parts of text
o …
➣ Labelling a visual (picture, map, plan, scheme, etc.) with
o words and/or expressions
o pieces of information / data / names
o parts of text
o …
➣ Multiple choice (test-like) exercises
➣ Gap-filling
➣ Completion of text
➣ Sequencing
o (key)words and expressions
o data
o names of people / places / events
o parts of text
o … etc.
➣ Correcting information
➣ Responding to yes-or-no questions
➣ True-or-false / Wrong-or-right / Double choice (test-like) exercises
➣ Responding to Wh-questions
➣ Filling in charts or tables
➣ Putting parts of text together (puzzles)
C. Follow-up stage: Exercises to be used after listening
➣ Discussing issues raised by the audio-source
➣ Acting out a story as suggested in the listening material
➣ Creating and acting out a continuation to the story
➣ Role-plays, simulations, drama
➣ Project-activities
o Writing a diary
o Writing a letter and/or a post-card
o Writing an article / report for a newspaper / magazine / webpage
o Writing a script for a drama or film o Creating comics
o Producing a radio-play or any genre of radio- programs (audio-project)
o Producing a film or any genre of tv-programs (video-project)
o Writing advertisements
o Creating a board-game
o Creating a riddle / cross-word puzzle
o … etc.
Music has played an important role in language education, too. Using musical recordings to bring students to a relaxed state has been typical for Suggestopedia and Relaxopedia.
Further application can be communication inspired by the music played in the background. The theme of the drama can be outlined by the visions students get when listening to the music in a relaxed state (Pohl, 1999). Thus, music promotes creating stories that can be acted out, visualized by pictures drawn by students and then written up (Katchen, 1995; Taylor, 1992).
Language labs and tapes to make them work have been typical for the Audio-Lingual Method. Though they are not really widely used in the everyday reality of language education any more, it is worth summing up what techniques can be applied. Tapes produced for language lab application follow the principles of programmed learning.
The lab-oriented tapes offer the chance for drills of the following types:
• Two-rhythm exercise
1. model and stimulus
2. student’s response
• Three-rhythm exercise
1. model and stimulus
2. student’s response
3. sample response
• Four-rhythm exercise
1. model and stimulus
2. student’s response
3. sample response
4. repeated response by student
• Two-in-four-rhythm exercise
1. model and stimulus 1
2. student’s response 1
3. sample response 1 and stimulus 2
4. repeated response 1 by student and student’s response to stimulus 2;
(Dániel and Nádasi, 1976; Poór, 2001; Wallner, 1976)
Students’ responses can be recorded in any of these exercises provided one wants to create a basis for comparison for the sake of learners’ self-evaluation. Thus language lab application has shown a way towards recording students’ oral performances for feedback purposes. It has led us to audio-production as a way of audio-related activities in language education.
Another purpose of recording students’ performances is to create audio projects. The activity that leads to the production of audio-projects is project work.
Project work is a series of carefully planned and negotiated, multi-skill activities that are carried out in a co-operative, creative atmosphere with the aim to produce something tangible that has got a real function in real life.
A project is the end-product of the previously described series of activities. Being tangible and looking similar to things that have got real functions in real life are very significant criteria of projects. In the context of audio-project work this end-product can resemble the characteristics of various genres of radio programs such as news, weather forecasts, sports broadcasts, quizzes, advertisements or commercials, traffic information, portraits of people, radio plays and soap operas. Another option is to record 'audio-letters' to friends abroad. This latter product is rather frequently used in the so called ‘shoe-box’ projects, i.e. class-to-class or school-to-school exchange projects.
What are the aims of project work?
• Helping students attain communicative competence;
• Encouraging spontaneous expression orally and in writing;
• Reinforcing the students' linguistic abilities;
• Developing their own learning capacity;
• Increasing the students' ability to read basic literary, technical or daily-use texts;
• Helping the students using English by exchanging ideas, feelings and information with
speakers of other languages;
• Contributing to the integral and social development of the students by means of an
active methodology, based mainly on group work;
• Contributing to learners' intellectual development;
(Fernández Carmona,1991)
The values of project work can be justified by the facts that it
• is student-centered, not syllabus-centered;
• focuses on topics or themes rather than on specific language;
• is skill-based, not structure-based;
• doubts the monopoly of verbal skills in the success of learning;
• reforms the traditional student-teacher relationship;
• based on hierarchy;
• effects on student-student relationship because it creates a cooperative atmosphere
rather than a competitive one;
• concerns on motivation as it is personal;
• encourages learning through doing and develops the sense of achievement as the end-
product is important;
• encourages independent investigation;
• integrates language skills with other skills in a cross-curricular context.
(Poór, 2001)
The process of creating audio-projects
A. Preparatory (pre-project work) stage
1. Input (in linguistic and cross-curricular terms)
2. The teacher’s decision on when project work is appropriate
3. ‘bridging’ and ‘leading-in’ activities
B. Active (while working on the project) stage
4. Initiating project work, introducing the idea
5. Discussing the actual topics and possible formats of the end-product
6. Defining objectives with students
7. Forming groups
8. Planning in groups
9. Counselling with the teacher
10. Collecting data, information, materials and resources to use
11. Group discussion
- Counselling with the teacher
- Confirming and modifying the plan
12. Producing the project
C. Follow-up (post-project work) stage
13. Group discussion an counselling with the teacher
14. Presentation: using the project for something in a real context
15. Reflection
The evaluation of project work is the trial of the product that is the project itself. When one listens to the audio-recording created through a series of learning activities, one expects it to function the way any radio-program would do in real life. A weather forecast produced by students can act as a starting point for a role play aiming at negotiating and planning a weekend for example.
