Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Semiotics
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Teaching Methods
Teaching Strategies
The has-relation
المؤلف:
Patrick Griffiths
المصدر:
An Introduction to English Semantics And Pragmatics
الجزء والصفحة:
41-3
11-2-2022
1449
The has-relation
The everyday words square, circle and triangle are also technical terms in geometry, where they have tight definitions. For example, a closed, straight-sided figure is a triangle if, and only if, it has exactly three sides. This underpins entailments such as: That figure is a triangle ⇒ That figure has three sides. For many words, however, we can only be sure that all the parts are there if the has-relation is stated in terms of prototypes. Prototypes are clear, central members of the denotation of a word.
Think of what you might advise a child drawing a face to put in: probably eyes, a nose and a mouth. How about a child drawing a house?
Probably you would expect there to be a roof, a door (or doors) and windows. Prototypes among the things denoted by the English word face have eyes, a nose and a mouth. The face of a Cyclops, with its single eye, is a face, but it is not a prototype face. I have seen a windowless house (the Black House of Arnol, on the Isle of Lewis). It is incontestably a house, but it is not a prototype for the denotation of house in contemporary English. The information that needs to be built into meaning postulates to reflect these semantic facts is listed in (3.1).
I grant that prototype faces and houses may have other parts besides those listed in (3.1), for example cheeks and a chin (for faces), perhaps a bedroom and kitchen (for houses). I have merely tried to list the main ones. Importantly, there are also many things that the prototypes do not have, like blemishes and a carport, even though these may be parts of many real faces and houses, respectively.
Restricted to prototypes, the has-relation makes available entailments. Some examples are given in (3.2).
Entailments were introduced as guarantees. Here the guarantees are weakened by making them conditional on prototypicality. The entailed propositions in (3.2) start with ‘if ’ because it seems that average English words are not as tightly defined as technical words like triangle. Given that the has-relation has to be restricted to prototypes for some words, it simplifies matters to do the same for all words that enter this relation.
الاكثر قراءة في Semantics
اخر الاخبار
اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة

الآخبار الصحية
