Consonant substitution according to substrate

In lower sociolects, characteristic of speakers with low educational levels and social status, the influence of the mother tongue is particularly felt in the differential treatment of consonants. MalE speakers of Malay background frequently produce [p, b, ʤ] for /f, v, z/:

Speakers of Chinese background frequently turn /r/ into [l], and /z/ into[ʤ] :

Speakers of Tamil background are recognizable by the substitution of [w] for /v/ and the deletion of /h/: