Fricatives

The most striking feature among fricatives is that ALL varieties (except WSAfE) treat /θ/ and /ð/ as something other than an interdental fricative. /θ ð/ are realized similarly as a pair as follows:

 in CFE, InSAfE, IndE, PakE;

[t d] in EAfrE, GhE, LibSE (here [t] occurs variably with [θ]), Kamtok, SgE, MalE, PhlE;

Variably as  for /θ/ and  for /ð/ in StHE, BlSAfE, GhE and GhP; Affricate realizations [tθ] and [dð] are reported as lesser variants in GhE and GhP.

/θ/ is realized as [f] word-fi nally in some words in EAfrE, GhE, LibSE, GhP and SgE.

In EAfrE /θ/ and /ð/ may be realised as [t s f] and [d z v] respectively. Other changes to fricatives are less widespread:

Velar fricatives [x] and [ɤ] occur in WSAfE and CFE, mainly in borrowings, place names, proper names etc.

H may be voiced in WSAfE, CFE, BlSAfE, InSAfE, IndE, PakE; it may also be murmured in the last three varieties. H may also be dropped in InSAfE, IndE and MalE, especially by Tamil speakers. In IndE it may be dropped in initial position with tonal adjustments, amongst Panjabi speakers. H may be substituted by [j] in CFE or by [j] or [w] amongst Tamil speakers of InSAfE, IndE and MalE. It may be dropped before [j] in CamE (e.g. in human). Hypercorrection may also occur in those varieties that drop H.

F occurs as an approximant (‘antedental’) in CFE, InSAfE and IndE. In northern NigE F is realized as [f], [p] or  ; for many speakers of IndE as [p^h]; and in basilectal PhlE as [p].

V has the following realizations:

an approximant [ʋ] in InSAfE and IndE;

[v] or [f] in northern NigE;

[b] or [f] in GhP, especially intervocalically;

[bh] amongst Bengali speakers of IndE;

[b] in basilectal PhlE;

[v] or [w] in StHE, IndE and amongst Tamil speakers of MalE.

/ʃ Ʒ/ have the following realizations:

[s z] variably in CFE, BlSAfE, EAfrE and IndE;

 in GhE.

In addition /ʃ/ may occur as [z] occasionally in CFE, CamE and (in final position) in MalE. It may occur as [s] occasionally in CFE and GhE.

Z occurs as [ʤ] occasionally in IndE and amongst Malay and Chinese speakers of MalE.