Anaphora vs. deixis

The time and place where a conversation takes place is sometimes referred to as the SPEECH SITUATION. There are a number of words whose interpretation (or reference) is not fixed, but depends on the specific details of the speech situation. Words of this type are called DEICTIC elements. The term DEIXIS comes from a Greek word which means ‘to show’ or ‘to point.’ Deictic elements typically refer to things that the speaker could actually point to while he is speaking. As the table in (8) indicates, first and second person pronouns (e.g. I and you) are always deictic. Their interpretation depends on who is speaking to whom.

(8) Deictic element Referent

      here                      where the speaker is

      there                     indicated or specified place away from speaker

      now                      the time of the speech act

      this                        something near the speaker

      that                       something away from speaker

      I                             speaker

      you                       addressee

The other way in which the semantic interpretation of pronouns may depend on the context of use is called anaphora (literally ‘referring back’). Anaphoric elements are words whose interpretation depends on the interpretation of some other element (e.g. a noun phrase) in the same discourse. This other element is called the antecedent. An anaphoric element refers to the same person, place, or thing as its antecedent.

Third person pronouns (he, she, etc.), demonstratives (this or that), the locative pro-form there, as well as a few other words, may be used either as deictics or as anaphors. The sentences in the following examples illustrate the anaphoric usage: in each case, the interpretation of the word in italics depends on the interpretation of some other phrase in the same discourse. Identify the antecedent for each anaphoric element:

(9) a Mrs. Thatcher promised John Major that she would not interfere with his campaign.

b John gave Mary a dozen roses, but asked her to share them with his sister.

c I walked all the way to the stadium, but found no one there.

D By the time he arrived at the river, John was too tired to swim.

(10) Smith: Mrs. Thatcher is supposed to visit the Pope tomorrow.

Jones: I wonder what she wants to talk to him about?

The antecedent usually precedes the anaphoric element, but, as (9d) shows, this is not always the case. And (10) shows that it is not necessary for the antecedent to be part of the same sentence as the anaphoric element, or even spoken by the same speaker.

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