

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
How can we tell it’s a creole?
المؤلف:
P. John McWhorter
المصدر:
The Story of Human Language
الجزء والصفحة:
23-30
2024-01-22
803
How can we tell it’s a creole?
A. Most languages either have gender and conjugation markers, such as European languages, or tones, such as Chinese. As we have seen, these features develop over long periods of time by grammaticalization (gender, conjugation) or sound change (tones).
B. Because they start as pidgins and grow from there, creoles are too young to have drifted into conjugation markers, Chinese-style tone, and so on. Thus, many creoles have none of these features, and none has more than a small amount.
C. But this alone cannot tell us whether a language is a creole. We can point to a small number of old languages that, by chance, have neither gender or conjugation markers nor tone, in Polynesia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa.
D. But we can still tell a creole from these languages. In old languages, there are always prefixes and suffixes whose meaning is not always predictable. For example, under- in underlie, undershoot, and underestimate has the same meaning. But what does under- mean in understand? This kind of irregularity results from semantic change over long periods of time.
E. Because they are old, even languages without gender and conjugation markers or tone have their “understands.” Chrau, of Vietnam, is one of these. Try to figure out what the prefix pa- means from the meanings of the words it is used in.
Chrau (Vietnam):
găn “go across” pagăn “crosswise”
le “dodge” pale “roll over”
lôm “lure” palôm “mislead”
lăm “set, point” palăm “roll”
jŏq “long” pajŏq “how long?”
F. The only languages where there are very few or no “understands” are creoles. For example, -pasin (from “fashion,” as in “way”) has the same meaning with all of the roots it combines with:
Tok Pisin:
gut “good” gutpasin “virtue”
isi “slow” isipasin “slowness”
prout “proud” proutpasin “pride”
pait “fight” paitpasin “warfare”
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